RELS204-05B

 

Outline, and explain in depth, the fundamental teachings of the Buddha. Make use of scriptural references in your discussion. 2500 words.

 

[2572 words]

 

Due Monday 10^th October 2005

 

As the word count for this essay severely restricts any detailed discussion of the subject matter I will cut this short: this essay will discuss the fundamental teachings of the Buddha in regard to the Buddha of the Theravada school. Furthermore, only the teachings of the dhammacakkappavattana sutta (Setting in Motion the Wheel of Truth), which is considered the Buddha’s first sermon, will be discussed. The Theravada school regards this sutta as the quintessence of the teaching of the Buddha and holds that this one sutta contains all that is necessary for understanding the Dhamma.[1]

 

The First Noble Truth: Dukkha

 

Dukkha does not mean suffering. By saying that dukkha is ‘suffering’ or ‘unsatisfactoriness’, we are not explaining what it is, but merely give it a new name. Dukkha is all encompassing; it is all the terms we can translate it as, and more. Dukkha is best realized by the individual, and in analytical examinations such as this, it is better left untranslated. The Buddha said: ‘He who sees dukkha sees also the arising of dukkha, sees also the cessation of dukkha, and sees also the path leading to the cessation of dukkha.’[2] This means that if one really and truly realizes dukkha, then the four Noble Truths in their entirety will become apparent and self-explanatory.

 

The first Noble Truth is a reflective statement. We must see it in terms of ‘there is dukkha’. To realise that this is a reflective statement is vital. The reflective stance creates an objective view, such as: ‘I see suffering’ as opposed to ‘Why do I have to suffer?’ Through this reflection we are neither pinning dukkha down nor accrediting it to any one thing or location, we are simply acknowledging it as a common bond we all share: everyone everywhere feels dukkha. This reflective viewpoint is known as ‘Buddha seeing the Dhamma.’ It is simply the acknowledgment that there is this dukkha without making it personal.[3]

 

The Buddha explained dukkha via the ‘Three Marks of Existence’. All forms of life, he said, can be shown to have three characteristics in common; dukkha, anicca (impermanence) and anatta (absence of permanent soul which separates each from the other forms of life).[4]

 

‘Sabbe samkhara dukkha...

 Sabbe samkhara anicca...

 Sabbe dhamma anatta’

 

‘All conditioned things are dukkha;

 All conditioned things are impermanent;

 All dhamma (things) are without individual soul.’[5]

 

The first mark refers to dukkha in the context of ‘ordinary suffering’, that which is universally accepted as suffering. Therein the Buddha taught that all conditioned experiences are dukkha - all forms of physical and mental suffering are included in the larger Dukkha of the First Noble Truth as ordinary suffering (dukkha-dukkha).[6]

 

The second is that all conditioned things are impermanent (anicca). Nothing is ever the same from one moment to the next. The universe is in constant flux; all material objects, and all mental objects (i.e. thoughts, emotions) are forever changing. If one is ignorant and believes worldly things to be permanent, then one will suffer as they change. This is dukkha produced by change (viparinama-dukkha).

 

The third is anatta (not-atta), the doctrine that nothing in existence has within it a permanent ‘soul’ or imperishable entity which distinguishes it from other forms of life.[7] This is dukkha produced through ignorance of reality, for that which we call a ‘being’, or ‘individual’, or ‘I’ is only a manifestation of ever-changing physical and mental forces or energies, which may be divided into five aggregates (pancakkhandha). The Buddha said: ‘In short, these five aggregates of attachment are dukkha.’ [8]

 

This philosophy is central to the first Noble Truth, but unfortunately it is difficult to understand; I offer here only a brief overview.

 

The five Aggregates of Attachment are:

 

1. The Aggregate of Matter or Forms (rupakkhandha). This includes the four Great Elements, known as solidity, fluidity, temperature and motion, and also their twenty-four Derivatives among which are included our five sense faculties of eye, ear, nose, tongue and body, and their corresponding sense objects, visible form, sound, smell, taste and tangible things. The aggregate of matter includes the whole realm of physical substance, both in one’s body and in the external world.[9]

 

2. The Aggregate of Sensations (vedanakkhandha). In this group are included all our sensations, which are threefold; pleasant, unpleasant or neutral. Sensations are experienced through contact of our physical and metal[10] organs with their counterparts: contact of the eye with visible forms, ear with sound, nose with odour, tongue with taste, body with tangible objects, and mind with thoughts.[11]

 

3. The Aggregate of Perceptions (sannakkhandha). The function of perception is recognition of objects both physical and mental; it is perception that brings about memory. There are six perceptions, relating to the six sense organs.

 

4. The Aggregate of Mental (Volitional) Formations (samkharaskkhandha). In this group are included fifty-two mental factors. Sensation and perception are two of them, but they are not volitional activities. The remaining fifty are collectively known as samkhara (Volitional Formations). [12] It is these Volitional Formations that cause kamma.

 

5. The Aggregate of Consciousness (vinnanakkhandha). There are once again six different forms of this aggregate, relating to the six different sense organs. When an object and its corresponding sense organ are present the appropriate consciousness arises dependent on them. When these three things come together (object, sense and matching consciousness) it is their coincidence that is called contact (phassa), which is a factor of Dependent Arising within the second Noble Truth.

 

The Second Noble Truth: Samudaya, the arising of dukkha

 

The Buddha said:

 

‘It is tanha (desire, thirst, craving) which causes re-becoming and

re-birth, accompanied by passionate pleasure, and finding fresh delight now here and now there, namely, (1) desire for sense pleasure (kama tanha), (2) desire for existence and becoming (bhava tanha) and (3) desire for non-existence (vibhava tanha).[13]

 

(1) The desire for sense pleasure (kama tanha) is the desire to please the six senses within the Aggregate of Sensations. It is desire for the pleasant form of sensation. This not only encompasses pleasant physical forms, but also pleasant mental forms, such as thoughts and ideas.

 

(2) The desire for existence (bhava tanha) is the desire for transform and change, to become something else.

 

(3) The desire for non-existence (vibhava tanha) is the desire to get rid of something. This is the desire one feels when experiencing an unpleasant sensation, such as pain. It is the desire to destroy, annihilate, or remove.

 

These three desires are not totally separate forms, but only different aspects of tanha itself.

 

Tanha should not be taken as the ‘first cause’ of dukkha, as in Buddhism there is no first cause. Even this tanha depends for its arising on something else, which is sensation (vedana), and sensation arises dependent on contact (phassa), which again is dependent on something else. This is the principle of Dependent Arising:

 

Dependent on ignorance (of the true nature of existence), arise volitional or karma formations.

Dependent on volitional formations, arises (rebirth) consciousness.

Dependent on consciousness, arises mentality-materiality (mental and physical combination).

Dependent on mentality-materiality, arises the sixfold base (the five sense organs with consciousness as the sixth).

Dependent on the sixfold base, arises contact (phassa).

Dependent on contact, arises sensation.

Dependent on sensation, arises tanha.

Dependent on tanha, arises attachment.

Dependent on attachment, arises the process of becoming.

Dependent on the process of becoming, arises ageing and death, sorrow, pain, grief and despair. Thus does the whole mass of dukkha arise.[14]

 

Dependent Arising should be not be viewed as a chain with a beginning and end, but as a continuous cycle. Thus there is no ‘first cause’, as all these causes are inter-dependent. Of this the Buddha said:

 

‘O monks, this wheel of existence, this cycle of continuity (samsara) is without a visible end, and the first beginnings of beings wandering and hurrying round, wrapt in ignorance (avijja) and fettered by craving (tanha) is not to be perceived.[15]

 

At this point we must understand two principle teachings of Buddhism: kamma and rebirth. The Buddha said: ‘Volition, O monks, I declare, is kamma.’ Volitional acts are those that one wills into action. These are contained within the aggregate of volitional formations. Volition arises through ignorance, and in turn produces kamma, which causes rebirth (re-becoming).

 

One may now believe that dukkha is directly caused by tanha, and that we must rout tanha from our lives. But this is not so; tanha does not intrinsically contain dukkha, nor does it intrinsically cause it. There is a factor between tanha and dukkha within the cycle of Dependent Arising; namely attachment (clinging, grasping etc.). This is an important distinction to make. Dukkha is dependent on attachment, which in turn is dependent on tanha. Tanha does not cause dukkha: the cause of dukkha is our attachment to tanha.

 

The Third Noble Truth: Nirodha, the cessation of dukkha

 

A peculiar point to note is that the definition of Nirodha, which is found in the first sermon of the Buddha, does not contain the word nibbana (Skt. nirvana).[16] Yet elsewhere the Buddha says: ‘The abandoning of tanha is nibbana.’[17] It is clear that nibbana is meant to mean just that; the inevitable result of the abandonment of tanha. Therefore I only use nibbana as a description of a state of mind.

 

The Buddha said:

 

 ‘This, monks, is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of Dukkha (dukkha-nirodha): the complete cessation, giving up, abandoning, release and detachment from tanha.’[18]

 

As discussed earlier, it is attachment to tanha that causes dukkha. We can now see that Nirodha is the detachment from tanha. It is the annihilation of the attachment to tanha, not of tanha itself. Here, ‘letting go’ is an often used term to mean the opposite of attachment.

 

The purpose of Nirodha is to show that the cessation of dukkha is possible. Nibbana, which is this possibility, is the deconstruction (reversal) of Dependent Arising:

 

‘What is the Noble Truth of the Cessation of dukkha? Through the complete cessation of ignorance cease volitional (kamma) formations; through the cessation of volitional formations... (and so on, following the pattern of  Dependent Arising)... ceases the whole mass of dukkha. This is called “the cessation of dukkha”.’[19]

 

From this it is obvious that the purpose of the Noble Truths is the cessation of dukkha, and not the cessation of rebirth. The ending of rebirth is a consequence of Nirodha. Through the cessation of volitional formations an individual no longer produces new kamma, and thus is free from repeated existence, i.e. rebirth.

 

It is possible for an Arahat (monk) to realise nibbana while still alive. If he does, the five aggregates will continue to function, and thus he continues to experience pleasant, unpleasant or neutral sensations. But when experiencing these sensations, he knows that they are impermanent (anicca), and he does not cling to them with the idea of ‘my’ and ‘mine’; thus they are left to arise and decay on their own accord. This is called the nibbana element with a basis remaining (ditthadhamma-nibbana).[20]

 

The nibbana element without a basis remaining (anupadisesa-nibbana) is known as parinibbana and is the final passing away of the Arahat. In this state the five aggregates have ceased.[21] It is wrong to say that the has Arahat entered nibbana, because it is not a state or ‘heaven’ where beings continue to live eternally. The final passing away of the Arahat is expressed in the texts as parinibbuto, parinibbayi, meaning fully passed away, fully extinct: the cessation of becoming – the journey’s end.[22]

 

 

The Fourth Noble Truth: Magga, the Eightfold Path

 

Magga is the path leading to the cessation of dukkha. Referring to this path in his first sermon, the Buddha called it the Middle Path, because it avoids two extremes: Indulgence in sensual pleasures on the one hand, and self-torture in the form of severe asceticism on the other.[23]

 

On his death bed, the Buddha said to his disciples: ‘The doctrine and the discipline which I have set forth and laid down for you, let them, after I am gone, be the teacher to you.’[24] The ‘discipline’ implies moral excellence, the taming of the tongue and bodily actions; it is the code of conduct for Buddhism. This is referred to as Virtue (sila). The ‘doctrine’ deals with mental training and the taming of the mind. It is the development of Mental Concentration (samahi), and Wisdom (panna).[25]

 

Virtue strengthens Concentration, and Concentration in turn promotes Wisdom. Wisdom helps one see life as it really is, to understand the three signs of being, annica, anatta and dukkha, and finally overcome ignorance (avijja). Virtue provides the support for mental development. One who is intent on development of the mind must develop a love for virtue; for it is virtue that nourishes mental life and makes it steady and calm.[26]

 

These three aspects of Magga consist of eight steps, which aim at promoting and perfecting the path. These eight should not be seen as separate steps, as they arise together and are interdependent and interrelated; they function simultaneously and support each other.

 

To refrain from evil and do good is the focus of sila. It embraces qualities of the heart, such as love, modesty and charity. To lead a life based on sila is to have good intentions for the welfare and happiness of all humankind. The three factors of sila are: Right Speech, Right Action and Right Livelihood.

 

Right Speech is to abstain from falsehood and always speak the truth with kind and refined words. To refrain from idle chatter, vain talk or gossip and instead to speak words which are meaningful and blameless.

 

Right Action is abstention from killing, stealing, and illicit sexual indulgence, and cultivating compassion, taking only things that are given, and living pure and chaste.

 

Right Livelihood is abandoning wrong ways of living which bring harm and suffering to others and living by a profession which is blameless and free from harm to oneself and others.

 

Samadhi is composed of Right Effort, Right Mindfulness and Right Concentration.

 

Right Effort is the endeavour to be watchful of and check all harmful thoughts, and to develop, promote and main­tain wholesome and pure thoughts.

 

Right Mindfulness is awareness in regard to the activities of the body, the feelings or sensations it feels, and towards the activities of the mind and mental objects.

 

Right Concentration is the steadiness of the mind. It is concentration that fixes the mind right and causes it to be unmoved and undisturbed. The perfectly concentrated mind is not distracted by sense objects, for it sees things as they really are.[27]

 

After mastering the mind, the Buddhist cultivates Wisdom (panna) which consists of Right Thought and Right Understanding.

 

Right Thought includes thoughts of renunciation, good will and of compassion or non-harm. These thoughts are to be cultivated and extended towards all living beings irrespective of race, caste, clan or creed.[28]

 

Right Understanding is the cardinal factor of the path. It is to understand life as an objective truth, which in essence comprises the four Noble Truths and the three Marks of Existence. Right Understanding is the result of continued and steady practice of meditation and careful cultivation of the mind.

 

We can now see how the three aspects of Virtue, Concentration and Wisdom function together for one common end: Deliverance of the Mind (ceto vimutti), which is known as Enlightenment.

 

This is the fundamental teaching of the Buddha; the complete release and liberation from dukkha through the extinction of ignorance (avijja) which is attained through the Eightfold path.

 

Bibliography

 

Ajahn Sumedho, The Four Noble Truths: Teachings by Ajahn Sumedho, online 09/10/05 at http://www.amaravati.org/abm/english/documents/4noble2/

 

Humphreys, Christmas (1958), Buddhism, Wyman & Sons: London

 

Piyadassi, Thera (1995), The Buddha’s Ancient Path, Buddha Educational Foundation: Taiwan

 

Rahula, Walpola (1974), What the Buddha Taught, Grove Press: New York

 

Saddhatissa, H. (1976), The Life of the Buddha, George Allen & Unwin: London